The Cyber Risks of Brain-Computer Interface Implants
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07/30/2023 :: Jeremy Pickett :: Become a Patron :: Buy Me a Coffee (small tip) :: @jeremy_pickett :: Discussion (FB)
The advances in brain-computer interfaces are tantalizing for many, many reasons. Both from the perspective of recreating an ability that has been lost, gaining an ability one never had, and augmenting abilities a person already possesses. The use cases virtually write themselves, but are approaches safe and effective?
TLDR: Brain-computer interfaces have evolved over decades, but raise concerns around privacy, security, and ethics. Neuralink's invasive neural lace has potential but requires scrutiny.
The promises of the technology, especially being adjacent to many complementary innovations which are currently changing the technology landscape, are the stuff of science fiction. And it appears that even with delays, progress is being made. However, similar to other technologies, we should be wary of overpromises and under-delivering. The technology, regulatory environment, ethical concerns, and lack of concrete historical precedent many of the specifics do not seem to be well understood.
History and Summary
History and Summary
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) allow direct communication between the brain and machines. Research began in the 1950s, with milestones like cochlear implants to restore hearing. Invasive BCIs using implanted electrodes to read neurons progressed in animals, then humans starting in the 1990s. Recent advances led by Neuralink aim to create high-bandwidth interfaces using flexible "neural lace" implants in the brain. While this could enable transformative applications, from paralysis treatment to enhanced cognition, it raises cybersecurity risks and ethical issues around privacy, agency, and human enhancement. Public opinion is mixed, regulation remains limited, and more interdisciplinary discussions are needed to align technology and values.
The 1950s marked the first major breakthroughs in demonstrating that electrical signals from neurons in the brain could be detected and potentially interpreted.
In 1952, researchers implanted electrodes in a macaque monkey's brain and showed that electrical impulses from visual neurons changed depending on what the monkey was looking at. This pioneering experiment by Yale scientists Jose Delgado and John Fulton demonstrated the feasibility of tapping into neural activity using implanted electrodes.
Other early animal research revealed how neural firing patterns in the motor cortex corresponded to specific body movements. In 1969, scientists Eberhard Fetz and Aposotolos Georgopoulos trained rhesus monkeys to use real-time feedback from single neuron recordings to control the deflection of a meter needle simply by thinking about hand movements. This provided some of the first evidence that neural activity could be voluntarily controlled and had potential for creating brain-machine communication.
Milestones
Milestones
The next major advance came in the 1970s at the University of Utah, where biomedical engineering professor Dr. Frank Guenther worked with neural interfaces. His research helped demonstrate how monkeys could learn to control neural signals from implanted electrodes to manipulate a lever, with implications for restoring motor function in paralysis.
Building on this animal research, the 1980s marked the transition to the first human tests of modern invasive BCIs. In 1986, neurosurgeon Dr. Philip Kennedy implanted the Neurotrophic Electrode into the brain of Johnny Ray, a Vietnam veteran left paralyzed by a stroke. The implant allowed Ray to control a switch by modulating his neural activity, which enabled him to spell words using a cursor on a computer screen.
Kennedy's initiative, called Neural Signals, went on develop new electrode technologies for reading and stimulating the brain. His company would be acquired by Cyberkinetics in 2001, which conducted FDA-approved trials of the BrainGate BCI system in humans. The BrainGate could record from dozens of neurons, allowing quadriplegic patients to control computers and robotic limbs using their thoughts.
Other groups advanced BCI research in humans in the 1990s. Neurosurgeon Dr. Roy Bakay implanted electrode arrays in patients with paralysis, enabling them to spell out words through brain control. Bakay later co-founded NeuroSky, a company focused on non-invasive EEG brainwave sensing headsets for consumer use.
Meanwhile, the research of Dr. Eberhard Fetz and colleagues at the University of Washington led to the first implantation of a brain-computer interface in a human in 1999. The NeuroControl Corp initiative demonstrated that quadriplegic patients could control cursors and play computer games using surgically implanted silicon electrode arrays that interfaced with their motor cortex.
Higher Resolution
Higher Resolution
In the early 2000s, BCIs continued advancing through work focused on noninvasive systems for medical applications. For example, companies like BrainGate and NeuroSky created EEG headsets that could read brain signals through the skull. While low resolution compared to implanted electrodes, these systems enabled paraplegic patients to potentially control wheelchairs, computer cursors, or prosthetic limbs simply by thinking about movement.
At the same time, research on implanted electrodes placed on the brain's surface made progress. This approach, known as electrocorticography (ECoG), provided higher resolution signals than noninvasive EEG. In 2004, researchers achieved a major milestone by showing a paralyzed patient could control a prosthetic hand using their motor cortex signals recorded via ECoG.
Animal research also accelerated in the 2000s, uncovering new knowledge about how higher-resolution electrical recordings from groups or individual neurons could potentially enable direct brain control of computer systems or robotic limbs. Scientists started experimenting with new flexible electrode materials that could better integrate with brain tissue compared to rigid microwire bundles.
This decades-long progression of BCI research set the stage for rapid innovation in the 2010s. Leveraging advanced electronics and computing, researchers made major strides in decoding movement intentions directly from recorded neural activity. Human trials demonstrated implantable motor cortex interfaces capable of restoring arm and hand movements, speech, and other functions in paralyzed patients. Other breakthroughs included BCIs enabling mind-controlled typing and restored vision via neural stimulation.
Consumer Demand
Consumer Demand
Progress was paralleled by increased commercial interest in BCIs, especially EEG headsets for consumers. But some like entrepreneur Elon Musk saw limitations in noninvasive systems, leading him to found Neuralink in 2016. Backed by funding and engineering resources, Neuralink aimed to create a new class of high-bandwidth BCIs using flexible "neural lace" implants. Their ultrafine threads with thousands of electrodes could integrate deeper into brain tissue than previous rigid electrodes.
Beyond medical applications, Neuralink set its sights on human enhancement via BCIs. Animal experiments showed promising results, with monkeys implanted with over 1000 electrodes using robotic surgery. But human trials are not yet approved, pending more safety testing. While Neuralink's neural lace represents the leading edge of invasive BCI innovation, it also raises profound ethical and security questions given the depth of integration.
BCI research has seen massive evolution since its origins in the 1950s animal experiments driven by multidisciplinary science and engineering. Early milestones included accessing visual and motor cortex signals, leading to medical applications for paralysis in humans starting in the 1990s. Recent advances are unlocking unprecedented brain-computer communication speed via flexible implants like Neuralink's neural lace. However, such intimate access to the brain also elevates risks from hacking to ethical issues of enhancement beyond medical uses, necessitating greater public discourse. The future of BCIs holds both promise and peril.
Rise of Neuralink
Rise of Neuralink
Neuralink was founded in 2016 by entrepreneur Elon Musk, with the goal of developing cutting-edge brain-computer interface (BCI) technologies. Musk and his engineering team aimed to create a new class of flexible, high-bandwidth implants that could integrate with the brain more seamlessly than rigid electrodes.
They designed thin flexible "threads" studded with electrodes made of conductive polymers, mimicking the flexibility of brain tissue. Each thread is thinner than a human hair, allowing up to 3,072 electrodes per array embedded in the brain. This "neural lace" can record from and stimulate large numbers of neurons at once, providing unmatched bandwidth for human-computer interfacing.
Beyond medical applications, Neuralink has bigger ambitions for human enhancement. Musk believes Neuralink could one day facilitate concepts like "conceptual telepathy," sharing thoughts and memories like a technological form of extrasensory perception. More near-term goals include cognitive improvements like enhanced memory recall and problem-solving.
Animal Farm
Animal Farm
Neuralink's technological capabilities were demonstrated through animal testing, starting with rodents in 2017. The company has since implanted prototypes in pigs and monkeys using robotic surgery. In 2021, a Neuralink monkey named Pager succeeded in wirelessly playing video games just by thinking, using over 1000 electrodes implanted in his motor cortex.
The Neuralink implant consists of a small module fixed to the skull, with thin electrode leads running to the relevant brain region. An internal computer chip digitizes neural signals from the electrodes, which are then transmitted wirelessly outside the body using the implant's induction coil. This avoids any physical brain-computer tether. Software translates the signals into actions like moving a cursor or text on a screen.
While Neuralink awaits regulatory approval for human trials, critics caution that risks outweigh the speculative benefits of neural laces. Again, ethicists worry such intimate machine integration could erode human autonomy and create an artificial divide between biologically and technologically enhanced individuals.
Thought Leaders
Thought Leaders
A number of philosophers, ethicist, scientists, doctors, and thought leaders have express opinions about brain-computer interface implants. These range from concerns to best practices, what could potentially go wrong, and how we can avoid the worst cases.
Nick Bostrom - Oxford philosopher concerned about existential risk from superintelligent AI merging with humans. Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (2014) - Argues that superhuman AI could threaten humanity if improperly controlled, including AI integrated into brains.
Francis Fukuyama - Political scientist concerned about effects of BCIs on human autonomy and identity. Our Posthuman Future (2002) - Warns enhancements like BCIs threaten to alter human nature and undermine equality.
Christof Koch - Neuroscientist studying consciousness, sees brain implants diminishing humanity. The Feeling of Life Itself (2020) - Expresses skepticism that BCIs could replicate the richness of human experience and consciousness.
Eliezer Yudkowsky - AI theorist concerned about alignment in brain-computer integration. The Alignment Problem (2022) - Discusses challenges in aligning advanced AI systems with human values and goals, applicable to integrated BCIs.
Nicholas Agar - Philosopher proposing ethical limitations and regulation for cognitive enhancement tech like Neuralink. Humanity's End (2010) - Proposes regulatory limits and licensing for human enhancement technologies to mitigate risks.
Marcello Ienca - Biomedical ethicist studying human rights implications of neural engineering. Towards a Human Rights Framework for Neurotech (2021) - Calls for frameworks upholding cognitive liberty and mental privacy as neurotechnology advances.
John Donoghue - Neuroscientist pioneering BCIs raising concerns over limitations. Understanding the Brain Machine (2022) - Notes current limitations in decoding and encoding neural signals for brain-computer interaction.
Susan Schneider - Artificial You (2021) - Analyzes how AI integrated with the self could alter identity and consciousness in complex ways.
Thomas Metzinger - Ethics of Brain Emulations (2009) - Argues emulating brains raises ethical issues around personal identity that require care.
Judy Illes - Neuroethics (2006) - Pioneering work highlighting ethical, legal, and social implications of emerging neurotechnologies.
Cybersecurity Risks and Challenges
Cybersecurity Risks and Challenges
More immediately concerning are cybersecurity vulnerabilities. If successfully hacked, an integrated neural lace implant could enable an attacker to access, manipulate, and control a victim's thoughts, memories, emotions, and actions. The consequences could be profound at both the individual and societal levels.
Unlike hacked phones or computers, the intimacy of a neural interface magnifies the potential risks. The implantable device has direct access to the user's brain activity patterns, effectively their innermost thoughts and cognitive contents. While neural signals are coded, machine learning is rapidly advancing to decode brain activity.
Malicious actors could potentially spy on a user's unfiltered thoughts, memories, emotions, and intentions. Worse still, a sophisticated hacker might be able to manipulate these processes by spoofing signals to the implant. This could allow coercing behaviors or inducing emotions against someone's will. False memories or experiences could also be introduced.
Addressing these troubling risks will require extensive cybersecurity precautions. Encryption, access controls, compartmentalization, and AI-driven threat detection will be essential safeguards for neural devices and data transmission networks. Physical containment of implants also needs fail-safe design, such that they power down or disconnect when hacked, to avoid permanent takeover.
However...
However...
Safety cannot rely solely on technical controls. The unique threats posed by neural interfaces also demand caution in functionality and continuous ethical oversight even beyond regulatory compliance. Users should retain agency and control while empowered with knowledge of the technology's capabilities and limitations. Moving slowly and deliberately with human trials will allow identifying and mitigating risks before any broad public rollout.
In summary, Neuralink's neural lace technology offers unmatched potential for human-computer integration. But this intimate connection also magnifies risks to cognitive liberty and privacy. Holistic cybersecurity and ethics reviews will be imperative to avoid potentially dystopian outcomes as research progresses. BCI innovators must follow principles of informed consent, avoid overpromising, and partner closely with regulators, ethicists, and the public to guide responsible development.
Intended and Unintended Consequences of Neural Interface Technology
Intended and Unintended Consequences of Neural Interface Technology
While the technological capabilities of neural implants are impressive, their ethical ramifications must be considered seriously, especially the potential unintended consequences. Philosophers like Nick Bostrom have raised concerns that directly interfacing the human brain with superintelligent AI could profoundly reshape society in unpredictable ways.
Bostrom argues that cognitive enhancement via neural implants may accelerate progress towards machine superintelligence surpassing human levels. If such AI is seamlessly integrated into human minds, it could significantly alter social structures, economic systems, and even human identity and existence. Radical shifts in values and motivations imposed by the AI merging with humanity introduce major risks, in Bostrom's view.
More immediately concerning are implications for personal autonomy, privacy, and access equality. Neural implants may allow users enhanced capabilities, but could also erode consent over one's own cognitive contents and processes. There are legitimate worries that without ethical precautions, neural interfaces could enable external parties to access or manipulate a user's thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and memories without their permission or knowledge.
Relevant Laws and Regulations
Relevant Laws and Regulations
There are laws and regulations spanning the globe, from states to countries to international treaties. This makes the regulatory environment quite complicated, however, given the nature of the topic, the current belief is this is the most sensible approach to take.
FDA Medical Device Regulations - Require clinical trials and approval for human implants.
CE Marking - European certification allowing device market access after risk review.
Medical Device Single Audit Program - Allows single site audit for compliance in US, Europe, others.
EU Medical Device Regulation 2017/745 - Tightened clinical evidence requirements for implants.
Neuroethics Legislation in California - Requires technology leaders have neuroethicist advisors.
IEEE Brain Initiative - Multi-stakeholder effort creating neurotechnology standards.
UN Human Rights Council BCI Resolution - Calls for protecting rights, ethics in BCI tech.
The Nuremberg Code - Established human subject research principles like informed consent.
US 21st Century Cures Act - Expedited pathways for health technologies like neural devices.
Regulation and Guidance
Regulation and Guidance
User control and empowerment should be central tenets in BCI systems, maintaining personal agency. Design choices that limit certain abilities in favor of user autonomy may be ethically preferable to maximizing enhancement at the cost of oversight and consent. Clear opt-in approaches and functionality constraints can help safeguard consent.
There are also risks of unequal access and division between enhanced and unenhanced individuals. Those privileged to afford neural enhancement tech may gain profound economic and social advantages over the biologically unaltered. This raises equity issues around access to cognitive improvements that could exacerbate injustice. Policies around access and inclusion will be crucial to avoid further marginalization.
Currently, regulation remains limited without major legislation specific to neural implants. Companies like Neuralink are undertaking human trials under general ethics board oversight and FDA requirements for medical devices. But some argue that BCIs' capacities for radical cognitive enhancement warrant bespoke regulation pushing beyond existing paradigms.
International governance conventions may be needed to address the unique risks of embedded neurotechnology. Rights like cognitive liberty and the protection of mental integrity must be upheld even as capabilities evolve. Policymakers have a responsibility to ensure public safety and equitable access if neural enhancement enters mainstream use.
Neural implants like Neuralink's lace raise challenging ethical questions that demand proactive engagement. Philosophers and ethicists must be heeded in discussions that shape the future development and application of invasive BCIs. While wondrous opportunities exist, we must ensure technology respects and elevates rather than diminishes fundamental human values. The arc of innovation must ultimately bend towards justice.
Neuralink Investors and Board Members
Neuralink Investors and Board Members
The reason this information is important is the potential disruption neuralink could cause to the healthcare industry. Paired with advanced AI and machine learning this could become a major divide between the haves and the have nots, not limited to able and differently-abled. If we pair interfaces this intimate with advanced Quantum Computing (Steve Jurvetson), AI (Sam Altman), AGI (Artificial General Intelligence), or SGI (Super General Intelligence) the impact could be even more profound. It has passed from purely science fiction to what many people are predicting a matter of time, not a matter of If.
Elon Musk - CEO of Neuralink, Tesla, and SpaceX. Entrepreneur pushing brain-computer interfaces as key to future AI symbiosis.
Sam Altman - Former YCombinator president, OpenAI co-chair, backed Neuralink. As former president of YCombinator and co-chair of OpenAI, Altman brings deep expertise in cutting-edge AI to Neuralink. OpenAI pioneered large language models like GPT-3 and Dall-E that demonstrate new levels of generative intelligence. Altman could advise Neuralink on integrating advanced neural networks and LLMs with brain-computer interfaces. His leadership in responsible AI development is also valuable.
Max Hodak - As Neuralink's President, Hodak is likely involved in turning Elon Musk's vision into specific neurotechnology R&D priorities and product development plans. With a biomedical engineering background, he provides technical leadership in translating ideas into prototypes and validated experiments.
Ben Rapoport - Neurosurgeon advising on neural lace implantation. Previously founded neurodevice company CorTec.
Antonio Gracias - VC investor at Valor Equity Partners. As an early Tesla investor and board member, Gracias likely provides guidance on scaling Neuralink's engineering efforts similar to Tesla's growth. He also has a long history with Elon Musk that probably translates to advising Musk on Neuralink's futuristic aspirations.
Steve Jurvetson - Prominent VC investor at Future Ventures. Backed Neuralink and other Musk companies. A prominent VC with early investments in SpaceX and Tesla alongside Neuralink, Jurvetson may guide Neuralink's long-term vision and business strategy by leveraging his experience backing visionary startups. He also funded quantum computing firms, suggesting he brings technical aptitude to assess Neuralink's ambitious R&D.
Jason Calacanis - Investor and entrepreneur who put early funding into Neuralink.
James Doty - As a Stanford neurosurgery professor, Doty is well-positioned to technically evaluate Neuralink's neural lace implantation plans and procedures. With medical device expertise, he can assess the feasibility and required testing to safely advance human trials.
Vanessa Tolosa - Neuralink's clinical trial director. Expert in brain-machine interfaces.
Neuralink assembled experts in AI, engineering, neuroscience, implant tech, and high-growth startups to technically and strategically evaluate its brain interface mission. Their expertise likely complements Elon Musk's role in setting the vision and rallying resources.
Regulations in the US, EU
Regulations in the US, EU
Regulation of neural implants like Neuralink's lace remains limited currently, representing an open challenge for policymakers. No major legislation has been passed to specifically govern neurodevices and their applications. Neuralink and other companies are proceeding cautiously with human trials under existing oversight frameworks.
In the US, the FDA provides approval and monitoring of clinical trials for implantable BCIs through its medical device regulations. Companies must demonstrate reasonable safety and efficacy for intended uses like treating paralysis. However, the FDA framework was not designed for cutting-edge applications like cognitive enhancement.
The European Union regulates implants as medical devices as well, focused on safety and risk management. CE marks indicating compliance allow market access. European efforts have been made to create standards for neurotechnologies through groups like the IEEE Brain project. But binding governance remains minimal.
This lack of bespoke regulation has led scholars like Francis Fukuyama to argue that BCIs urgently require tailored governance given their radical capabilities. When neural implants can potentially alter someone's memory, perception, and identity, dubbed "cognitive liberty" by some ethicists, traditional paradigms may fall short.
International Binding Conventions and Rules
International Binding Conventions and Rules
Internationally binding conventions may be needed to uphold rights protecting mental integrity in an age of embedded neurotechnology. The UN and other bodies could develop agreements on cognitively enhanced humans much like treaties on other emerging domains like AI ethics. Standardized safety requirements and use restrictions could help mitigate risks.
Any regulatory framework will need to strike a nuanced balance between safely fostering innovation and managing risks. But a few guiding principles are imperative. Consent, privacy, and user autonomy should remain sacrosanct even as capabilities expand. Policy should promote access and inclusion for therapies while restricting unethical augmentation.
Ongoing oversight will be critical as well, adapting policies as technology progresses. BCI companies should embed ethics boards and clarity over intended applications into their research and business models. Ultimately, responsible regulation needs to align emerging neurotechnology with human values and rights rather than maximize profits alone.
In summary, current regulation is likely inadequate for the profound questions raised around neural enhancement implants. Policymakers, ethicists, technology leaders and the public should proactively shape governance to uplift human dignity. With care, neural interfaces could empower society if developed and applied prudently under ethical constraints. Good policy can help innovation bend towards justice.
Looking Forward
Looking Forward
While no current relationships with other AI and LLM projects are evident, there is some indirect overlap in their interests in brain-inspired AI and brain-computer interfaces:
- Anthropic's AI assistant Claude was trained on public neuroscience datasets to build more human-like reasoning. This aligns with Neuralink's goal of understanding the brain's computations.
- Stable Diffusion and Midjourney leverage neural networks for generative art resembling human creativity. Neuralink likewise aims to study the neural patterns underlying imagination.
- Meta, Microsoft, and Google have all researched using LLMs for natural language interfaces. Neuralink's BCI could someday enable direct speech interaction via imagined words.
However, these are speculative connections rather than formal collaborations at this time. All the entities share an interest in brain-inspired AI, but seem to be pursuing it independently rather than in partnership. This points to an overall 'meta goal', based on investor history, technology overlap, and tantalizing clues and speculation that we may be closer to tight, intimate integration with computation than we realize. The rapid change in the past three years alone from 2020-2023 with advancements in LLMs, GPT, and other AI systems, the industry is growing and maturing at an unprecedented pace.
Recent Press Releases
Recent Press Releases
PUBLISHED THU, MAY 25 20238:42 PM EDT
Neuralink, the neurotech startup co-founded by Elon Musk, announced Thursday it has received approval from the Food and Drug Administration to conduct its first in-human clinical study.
The implant aims to help patients with severe paralysis regain their ability to communicate by controlling external technologies using only neural signals.
The extent of the approved trial is not known. Neuralink said in a tweet that patient recruitment for its clinical trial is not open yet.
https://www.cnbc.com/2023/05/25/elon-musks-neuralink-gets-fda-approval-for-in-human-study.html
May 31, 2023 04:00 pm | Updated June 01, 2023 07:58 pm IST
Since its founding in 2016, Elon Musk’s neurotechnology company Neuralink has had the ambitious mission to build a next-generation brain implant with at least 100-times more brain connections than devices currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
The company has now reached a significant milestone, having received FDA approval to begin human trials.
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[1] https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnsys.2021.578875/full
[2] https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/tbci20
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface
[5] https://books.google.com/books/about/Brain_Computer_Interfaces.html?id=PeoEvgAACAAJ
[6] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7824107/
References and Citations by Perplexity.ai
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